Vaisheshika is among the six Astika School of Hindu philosophies (orthodox Vedic systems namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedhanta) of India. This system of thought is closely associated with the School of Logic or Nyaya. Vaisheshika adopts a form of atomism and contends that every object in the physical universe is reducible to a finite number of atoms. This school of thought was expounded by sage Kanada (or Kana-bhuk, literally meaning `atom-eater`).
From the 6th century B.C. Nyaya and Vaisheshika are considered sister philosophies. Both Nyaya and the Vaisheshika emphasise that a virtuous life guided by the principles of Dharma enables an individual to achieve a fulfilling life (Abhyudaya) which has the spirit of highest good or Liberation (Nishreyasa). The two systems of philosophy maintain a dualistic concept which encompasses God (Supreme Self) and Jiva (individual self). According to Kanada`s philosophy both the schools of thought that is Nyaya and the Vaisheshika were similar but in the later stages they differed from each other. Nyaya philosophy laid emphasis on all the four sources of knowledge but the Vaisheshika philosophy believed that only perception and inference are of prime importance.
Although not among original philosophies, later Vaisheshika atomism also differs from the atomic theory of modern science by claiming that the functioning of atoms was guided or directed by the will of the Supreme Being. This is thus a theistic form of atomism. Vaisheshika philosophers tried to develop a theory to explain the properties of materials as the interaction of different types of atoms that make up the material. The Vaisheshika system of Philosophy categorises all objects of valid knowledge or padartha into six.
According to the postulates of Vaisheshika Philosophy all things in the universe can be classified into padarthas or which may be termed as objects of experience. There are mainly six categories of the padarthas that exist in the universe. They are guna (quality), visesa (particularity), dravya (substance), karma (activity), samavaya (inherence) and samanya (generality). In the later stages the Vaisheshika philosophy added the category of non-existence or abhava within the realm of padartha. Among the six padarthas dravya, guna and karma are classified as arthas or the ones which have real objective existence. Wheras samanya, visesa and samavaya are known as products of intellectual harnessing and are therefore logical categories.
Dravya (substance):
Nine components form an integral part of the Darvya system. They are prithvi (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vayu (air), akasa (sky), kala (time), dik (space), atman (self) and manas (mind). The first five among the dravyas are known as bhutas because they can be perceived and felt with the external senses.
Guna (quality):
Seventeen gunas or qualities have been mentioned by the Vaisheshika Sutra and a group of seven more gunas were added by Prasastapada. Unlike dravya, a guna is not able to exist independently. The core seventeen gunas which existed according to the Vaisheshika Sutras were rasa (taste), parthaktva (inidividuality), vibhaga (disjunction), aparatva (posteriority), dvesa (aversion), rupa (colour), sparsa (touch), parimana (size), samyoga (conjunction), gandha (smell), prayatna (effort), iccha (desire), sukha (pleasure), paratva (priority), duhkha (pain), samkhya (number) and buddhi (knowledge).
Karma (activity):
The element Karma does not have a separate existence they are part of the darvyas or substances. But karma or action is ephemeral in nature unlike the gunas which are referred to as permanent characteristic of a substance. For instance dravyas like akasa (sky), kala (time), dik (space) and atman (self) lack the element of karma within them.
Samanya (generality):
According to the Vaisheshika School of Philosophy there exists plurality of substances and because there is plurality of substances it is obvious that there will be common features among various substances. When such a common property is found between many substances it is referred as samanya or generality.
Visesa (particularity):
The element of visesa is opposed to the element of samanya. It is with the help of visesa or particularity that one is able to distinguish things from one other. Rather it can be said that visesa refers to the particular features of a substance.
Samavya (inherence):
Samavya refers to the inseparable relation between substances. Kanada had said that samavaya is the relation between the cause and the effect. He had tried to say that within the cause is hidden the effect.
Prasastapada had defined the concept of Samavaya more intricately. He had said that the relationship that exists between substances cannot be separated according to Samavaya. He had elucidated his definition by saying that it is a relationship that exists between the container and the contained. It can thus be said that the relationship defined by Samavaya cannot be perceived but it is certainly inferable.
The Vaisheshika School of Philosophy states that even the smallest perceivable matter is composed of the finite structure atoms or paramanus. It emphasises on the fact that atoms are the indivisible and eternal reality of all substances. Moreover a unique feature of paramanus is that they can neither be created nor destroyed and each atom possesses an individuality or visesa.
Some of the ancient texts still exist with regard to the Vaisheshika School of Philosophy. The earliest of all is the Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada or the Kanakbhasa. This Sutra of Kanada has been divided into ten parts. During the 4th century AD another important piece of text developed within the Vaisheshika literature. It was the "Padarthadharmasamgraha". Apart from these landmark texts there were some other important texts in the Vaisheshika literature which had developed in the consequent year.
Thus, it can be said that Vaisheshika School of Philosophy gives emphasis on the atomicity of elements. It also states that every particle has an individuality of its own.
For a simple understanding on various philosophies, take a look into http://indianphilosophy.50webs.com/index.htm
Friday 23 April 2010
Thursday 22 April 2010
Happy Book Day!!!
April 23 - Today is World Book and Copyright Day organized by UNESCO to promote reading, publishing and protection of intellectual property through copyright.
Every book is different and leaves an impression in your mind after reading. Books are very special and the impression they leave is stronger than watching a movie or a stage drama. In a movie, we see a third person’s (director) perception of a story. But, when we read a book, we have all the freedom to visualize the story and characters involved. The same book will leave different impression in different people (Well…so do movies or any other visual medium). In general, movies define boundaries for our imagination whereas books don’t.
This is very obvious when we watch a movie which is based on a story from a successful book. If we read the book first (Which normally happens) and watch the same story as a movie, we will feel that something is really missing there. Reading books before sleep also helps us to get peaceful sleep during the night (Especially, heavy subject books help very well in this). But, other visual media like the internet, TV etc disrupts good sleep. Books also are very good companions during travel.
If you are not a regular reader, try to make a habit to read atleast a couple of pages before sleep. If you are a parent, encourage your kids to read some books and get to know their views about the book. This will lead to a better interaction between you and the kids and will also help both to know more things.
Happy Reading…
Wish U A Happy Book Day!!!
Thursday 15 April 2010
Samaan Khareedo...Lottery Khelo!!! (Buy things...Play Lottery)
Sounds like a catchy advertisement huh?
Sales tax evasion is a major problem in many places and most of us never ask for a receipt for the things we buy,be it small or big. When it comes to big things, most people go for an agreement with the seller and get a reduction in price. When a purchase is not recorded, it doesnt come under account and thus is not taxable. So, the seller actually gives a small discount from the huge amount he saves. Every year, the government lose a lot of money in this way. Most of us do it even after knowing all these details.
Taiwan government is using a method to reduce tax evasion. This method is successful over a long period of time in this island.The title tell you what it is all about.The idea is that all the sellers should give the customers a "Receipt"(The size of the invoice, the details that should be mentioned are specified by the government). Well, but we normally never bother about the receipts. So, how can the government avoid tax evasion? Thats where lottery plays a role.
Each "Invoice" comes with an 8-digit number. This will be your lottery number. So, every time you get a receipt for a product you purchase, you automatically get a lottery. The draw is conducted every alternative month and the prices will be from 200 NT Dollars to 200000 NT Dollars (Approx US$8 to US$6500). If the last three numbers match the draw number, you get 200 NT Dollars and so on. If all the 8 numbers match you win the maximum amount. The advantage is that smaller amounts (Upto 1000 NT Dollars) can be used to buy things in convenient stores (Sure...you get a receipt for that also... Buy a lottery with a lottery...Nice huh).
Many people are not interested in these lotteries and its quite a tedious job to sit and check all the receipts you have over a period of two months. In that case, there is also a small box in front of all the stores (The boxes belong to some charity like World Vision) where people can drop the invoice.In this way, there is a chance to donate some money to such organizations (Provided the receipt you dropped wins some amount).
Note: This system may not be suitable for countries like India. Most of the retailers in Taiwan are chain stores like 7-11, Family mart etc. But, in a country like India, most stores are run by individuals and the net sales from a single store may not be very high. For expensive goods, people will still go for a discount from the seller than getting a lottery. A similar system was introduced in Argentina and was not a success.
But, the idea will surely create an awareness among people that every purchase should be billed and if such a system can bring that awareness, its already a success. Once we are adopted to a system,then we most likely will follow it and future generations will get used to it easily. After all, we cannot change things in a day.
Sales tax evasion is a major problem in many places and most of us never ask for a receipt for the things we buy,be it small or big. When it comes to big things, most people go for an agreement with the seller and get a reduction in price. When a purchase is not recorded, it doesnt come under account and thus is not taxable. So, the seller actually gives a small discount from the huge amount he saves. Every year, the government lose a lot of money in this way. Most of us do it even after knowing all these details.
Taiwan government is using a method to reduce tax evasion. This method is successful over a long period of time in this island.The title tell you what it is all about.The idea is that all the sellers should give the customers a "Receipt"(The size of the invoice, the details that should be mentioned are specified by the government). Well, but we normally never bother about the receipts. So, how can the government avoid tax evasion? Thats where lottery plays a role.
Each "Invoice" comes with an 8-digit number. This will be your lottery number. So, every time you get a receipt for a product you purchase, you automatically get a lottery. The draw is conducted every alternative month and the prices will be from 200 NT Dollars to 200000 NT Dollars (Approx US$8 to US$6500). If the last three numbers match the draw number, you get 200 NT Dollars and so on. If all the 8 numbers match you win the maximum amount. The advantage is that smaller amounts (Upto 1000 NT Dollars) can be used to buy things in convenient stores (Sure...you get a receipt for that also... Buy a lottery with a lottery...Nice huh).
Many people are not interested in these lotteries and its quite a tedious job to sit and check all the receipts you have over a period of two months. In that case, there is also a small box in front of all the stores (The boxes belong to some charity like World Vision) where people can drop the invoice.In this way, there is a chance to donate some money to such organizations (Provided the receipt you dropped wins some amount).
Note: This system may not be suitable for countries like India. Most of the retailers in Taiwan are chain stores like 7-11, Family mart etc. But, in a country like India, most stores are run by individuals and the net sales from a single store may not be very high. For expensive goods, people will still go for a discount from the seller than getting a lottery. A similar system was introduced in Argentina and was not a success.
But, the idea will surely create an awareness among people that every purchase should be billed and if such a system can bring that awareness, its already a success. Once we are adopted to a system,then we most likely will follow it and future generations will get used to it easily. After all, we cannot change things in a day.
Sunday 11 April 2010
A Fairy Tale...
When I was in senior high school, I was crazy collecting stamps and coins from different countries (I do collect coins and currencies now, but not very much into it as in the past)... Most collections are through exchanges with other friends who had similar interests... I used to go to some exhibitions and stalls where they display some rare coins, currencies and stamps and know more details.
This incident happened when I was probably in grade 8th or 9th.We use to finish our lunch very fast and spend rest of the time playing or going out of the school campus to buy some snack. It was summer time and my favorite Indian Gooseberries were sold around the school campus. In particular, an old lady will sell the berries with salt and chili powder sprinkled on it for 50 paise or one rupee in small paper cones (Mouthwatering!!!). We use to buy it from her and take it to the classroom and eat it during class time without the knowledge of the teacher.
One day, the lunch time was about to finish and I suddenly felt like buying a packet of gooseberries. I ran immediately outside to look for the old lady. There were few kids buying the stuff from her. When I gave her the money to get some berries, the bell rang. She gave me the berries and handed me the change. I didnt even look into how much she gave me back and ran back into the school. I went to the class and put the berries under the desk and looked into the coins she gave me. Thats when I noticed one of the coins she gave me was quite different. Since the class started, I couldnt put much attention on that. So, I slipped it into my purse in a separate pouch and listened to the teacher (Of course, I enjoyed the gooseberries in between).
I came back home and took out the coin from my purse. It was not any Indian coin for sure. It looked so different and I couldnt understand the things written on the coin. There was a picture of a person standing sideways on one side of the coin. On the other side, it was written "5" and some other things which I couldnt understand. Though I was little upset for getting some unknown coin from the old lady, I was quite happy to get some coin from some unknown place and was curious in knowing the details about it.
I tried to show it to some people whom I thought can give me some information about it. But, none of them could come with an answer. Some people told me that it could be a coin from Japan. Anyway, I kept the coin safe in my collection. Later, I collected many coins, but I always got it from people who were from those countries and so I also had the information about those coins. Among all the coins I had (Well, I still have all of them with me), that coin was special and its details unknown.
Many years passed. I finished my school, joined college and had no interest on those collections. They were sleeping safely on my wardrobe. I did my Masters' degree and by the end of the last semester, I was trying to apply for a PhD. I tried many countries and through many channels, but things were not working out.
I went to do my project in a research center. Thats when I came to know about a PhD program in Taiwan through my advisor. I also applied for it and got through the selection process.I was very happy and excited that my dream came true to go out of India to study. So, I made all the arrangements and with the help of many good people, I could do all the processing pretty much in a smooth manner.
The day came when I boarded the flight with all excitement. It was my first trip outside India and the excitement even suppressed the feeling of separation from the family. I reached Taiwan safely and was taken to the Institute. I forgot to change my money from USD to local currency (New Taiwan Dollars). Anyways, I managed to get some small money (300 NTD) from the administrative assistant of the institute as a loan with which I could manage a day or two.
With that money in hand and some small idea about where to get some food, I walked along the street near to my place. I went into a shop which looked like a small eatery and asked the person for some food (In English). But, the local people in Taiwan dont understand much English and speak only Chinese or Taiwanese. He replied me in Chinese and I couldnt understand anything. But, his actions said that the food was not ready yet. Also, the food didnt look Vegetarian and I didnt know how to ask.
Being tired from a long trip and confused with the language and the place, I walked slowly looking for some small shop. Then, I saw one which looked like a place selling some biscuits and drink. I went in and picked a packet of biscuits and a bottle of drink. There was an old lady (probably in her 70's)and I asked her the price for the stuff. She took a calculator and typed 30. I gave her a 100 NT Dollar bill I had and she gave me some change back. I looked into the coins she gave me back and counted it to see whether I had the right change. Thats when I noticed that one of the coins she gave me was something familiar. Yureka!!! I have the answer for a long time question. Yes, the coin I got from the old lady (who sold gooseberries to me) many years ago was a Five New Taiwan Dollar. There was no doubt about it and I realized it the moment I saw it.I cant explain the feeling I had at that moment. But, its really something amazing. It could be a mere co-incidence but still interesting. Right?
(Well, to still confirm, I took the coin out of the wardrobe when I went home after an year.And yes, its a 5 NTD)
Images showing the front and back side of a five New Taiwan Dollar
Well... Few questions linger in my mind regarding this...
1. A very old lady who may not have any idea about the existence of such a country got a coin from that place. How could that be?
2. There were many kids buying berries from her and the coin could have reached someone else's hands. It came to me, that too, when I was crazy collecting coins.Why?
3. I was trying out for a PhD in many countries. But, I got to get here. I just knew that there was a country named Taiwan but never had any idea that I will be in this country.
Well... There are many questions for which we can never get an answer...
This incident happened when I was probably in grade 8th or 9th.We use to finish our lunch very fast and spend rest of the time playing or going out of the school campus to buy some snack. It was summer time and my favorite Indian Gooseberries were sold around the school campus. In particular, an old lady will sell the berries with salt and chili powder sprinkled on it for 50 paise or one rupee in small paper cones (Mouthwatering!!!). We use to buy it from her and take it to the classroom and eat it during class time without the knowledge of the teacher.
One day, the lunch time was about to finish and I suddenly felt like buying a packet of gooseberries. I ran immediately outside to look for the old lady. There were few kids buying the stuff from her. When I gave her the money to get some berries, the bell rang. She gave me the berries and handed me the change. I didnt even look into how much she gave me back and ran back into the school. I went to the class and put the berries under the desk and looked into the coins she gave me. Thats when I noticed one of the coins she gave me was quite different. Since the class started, I couldnt put much attention on that. So, I slipped it into my purse in a separate pouch and listened to the teacher (Of course, I enjoyed the gooseberries in between).
I came back home and took out the coin from my purse. It was not any Indian coin for sure. It looked so different and I couldnt understand the things written on the coin. There was a picture of a person standing sideways on one side of the coin. On the other side, it was written "5" and some other things which I couldnt understand. Though I was little upset for getting some unknown coin from the old lady, I was quite happy to get some coin from some unknown place and was curious in knowing the details about it.
I tried to show it to some people whom I thought can give me some information about it. But, none of them could come with an answer. Some people told me that it could be a coin from Japan. Anyway, I kept the coin safe in my collection. Later, I collected many coins, but I always got it from people who were from those countries and so I also had the information about those coins. Among all the coins I had (Well, I still have all of them with me), that coin was special and its details unknown.
Many years passed. I finished my school, joined college and had no interest on those collections. They were sleeping safely on my wardrobe. I did my Masters' degree and by the end of the last semester, I was trying to apply for a PhD. I tried many countries and through many channels, but things were not working out.
I went to do my project in a research center. Thats when I came to know about a PhD program in Taiwan through my advisor. I also applied for it and got through the selection process.I was very happy and excited that my dream came true to go out of India to study. So, I made all the arrangements and with the help of many good people, I could do all the processing pretty much in a smooth manner.
The day came when I boarded the flight with all excitement. It was my first trip outside India and the excitement even suppressed the feeling of separation from the family. I reached Taiwan safely and was taken to the Institute. I forgot to change my money from USD to local currency (New Taiwan Dollars). Anyways, I managed to get some small money (300 NTD) from the administrative assistant of the institute as a loan with which I could manage a day or two.
With that money in hand and some small idea about where to get some food, I walked along the street near to my place. I went into a shop which looked like a small eatery and asked the person for some food (In English). But, the local people in Taiwan dont understand much English and speak only Chinese or Taiwanese. He replied me in Chinese and I couldnt understand anything. But, his actions said that the food was not ready yet. Also, the food didnt look Vegetarian and I didnt know how to ask.
Being tired from a long trip and confused with the language and the place, I walked slowly looking for some small shop. Then, I saw one which looked like a place selling some biscuits and drink. I went in and picked a packet of biscuits and a bottle of drink. There was an old lady (probably in her 70's)and I asked her the price for the stuff. She took a calculator and typed 30. I gave her a 100 NT Dollar bill I had and she gave me some change back. I looked into the coins she gave me back and counted it to see whether I had the right change. Thats when I noticed that one of the coins she gave me was something familiar. Yureka!!! I have the answer for a long time question. Yes, the coin I got from the old lady (who sold gooseberries to me) many years ago was a Five New Taiwan Dollar. There was no doubt about it and I realized it the moment I saw it.I cant explain the feeling I had at that moment. But, its really something amazing. It could be a mere co-incidence but still interesting. Right?
(Well, to still confirm, I took the coin out of the wardrobe when I went home after an year.And yes, its a 5 NTD)
Images showing the front and back side of a five New Taiwan Dollar
Well... Few questions linger in my mind regarding this...
1. A very old lady who may not have any idea about the existence of such a country got a coin from that place. How could that be?
2. There were many kids buying berries from her and the coin could have reached someone else's hands. It came to me, that too, when I was crazy collecting coins.Why?
3. I was trying out for a PhD in many countries. But, I got to get here. I just knew that there was a country named Taiwan but never had any idea that I will be in this country.
Well... There are many questions for which we can never get an answer...
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